Psychology For Social Care Practice Essay - 2185 Words

This essay will demonstrate my understanding of developments which occur at each stage of an individuals life cycle. I will relate these developments to two relevant psychological theories and discuss how an individuals needs must be met to enable them to develop. The human life cycle can be broken down into 5 basic stages (Bingham et al. 2009); Infancy - 0-2 years Childhood - 2-12 years Adolescence - 12-21 years Adulthood - 21-65 years Older Adulthood - 65+ years During each stage of the life cycle, different physical, emotional, cognitive, social and cultural developments occur; In infancy, physical changes include learning to sit up, crawl and walk independently. At this stage, the infant will begin to look for attention from others†¦show more content†¦She has a good level of personal hygiene and takes pride in her appearance. Before coming to Thorneycroft she had home help who assisted her with household tasks such as cooking and housework and helped her with medication for her cellulitis. Mrs. Oswald was a midwife for fifty years, she is well educated and enjoys sharing her knowledge and talking about her career. She keeps her mind active by reading the newspaper, doing crossword puzzles and playing dominoes when she goes to the day centre but it is possible that these activities are not stimulating enough for her. She is a little confused at times about her roles; she behaves as though Thorneycroft staff are her employees and adopts a matron-like attitude with them, which probably crosses over from her role in her career as a midwife. She can be forgetful but does not have dementia and before moving to Thorneycroft was quite vulnerable as she sees the best in people and was being exploited by people doing odd jobs and coming in and out of her home. Mrs. Oswald appears to be content on the surface, she has started to accept death and talks about it openly. Her remaining family all live some distance away in England but she looks forward to a phonecall from her cousin each evening and seems to take comfort in speaking to him, appearing more settled after their conversations. She has outlived her close family - husband and daughters and appears lonely. Mrs. Oswald doesnt talk muchShow MoreRelatedPsychology for social care practice Essay1784 Words   |  8 Pagesï » ¿Psychology for Social Care Practice (DH3M34) Assessment 2 Case Study (LO.2 and LO.3) In this assessment I am going to be writing a case study on Rose. Rose is the youngest of five children, she has one sister and three brothers. Rose has been diagnosed with a rare chromosome deletion on her 22nd chromosome, it is called 22q13 deletion syndrome also known as Phelan Mcdermid syndrome after the doctors Katy Phelan and Heather Mcdermid who first discovered this syndrome whilst studying chromosomeRead MorePsychologys Influence on Nursing Essay1149 Words   |  5 PagesAs defined by Mason and Whitehead, psychology is a branch of biological science which focuses on the study of conscious life in its origin (66). Mason and Whitehead go on to argue that conscious life refers to the experiences of the individual and origins refer to the particular group or issue being reviewed: e.g., child, adult, abnormal or animal (66-7). A basic examination of the definition of psychology demonstrates that the practice is one that requires understanding of the human experience andRead More Psychology And Sociology And Psychology1612 Words   |  7 PagesWhen we think of society or people, and their behavior, psychology and sociology come to our mind. This is because they are academic fields that posses the same main idea, which is the study of the behavior. Although these two sciences have enormous differences, for those whom never had read anything about this topics it would seem the same. Despite bearing some superficial similarities, the differences between sociology and psychology are pronounced. Actually the main contrast between them isRead MoreHealth And Health Of The World Health Organization Essay1289 Words   |  6 Pagesphysical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity†. It is the goal of health psychologists to identify and understand what determines physical, mental, and social well-being. Rather than focusing on mental illness, it focuses on physical health. The aim of health psychology is to promote and maintain health, prevent and treat illness, identify and diagnose the correlation between health, illness, and dysfunction, and to improve the health care system and the formationRead MoreImportance of Psychology in Nursing786 Words   |  4 Pages| Importance of Psychology in Nursing Practice | Roles amp; Perspectives | | Author Name | | University Name | It is very important to understand the psyche and thought process of the individuals for the people in Health related profession. That’s why Psychology plays a major role in the professional development of the nurses. This document is a study of the important perspectives of Psychology which are incorporated in Nursing practices. | Table of Contents Table ofRead MoreHow Has Psychological Science Developed Throughout History?What1532 Words   |  7 Pagesreflect on this in relation to one areas of Psychology (for example those covered in the second half of this module). Health Psychology Introduction The advancement of psychological science creates important influence that are relevant to matters such as prevention and treatment of diseases. (Taylor 2006). Health psychology a field developed in the late 1970’s is an application of psychology that helps individuals understand the biological, social and psychological factors that influence diseasesRead MoreEssay on Psychologists1017 Words   |  5 Pages Psychology is the study of human behavior, how we think, feel and act. Psychologists study both normal and abnormal behavior to understand it. Psychologists also try to use what we learn from that study to help people change aspects of their behavior that they want to change. Areas of psychology are clinical, industrial, and developmental. Careers in Psychology offer varied opportunities. Employment opportunities for capable psychologists are expected to be slightly better than average over theRead MoreErik Erikson s Theory And Theory908 Words   |  4 Pagesthe impact it may have on their psychological and social development. Both theories believe that personality begins to develop from a young age and therefore occurrences in early life can have lasting impacts on the developmental of an individual. An individual’s social and psychological development is significantly influenced by early life and childhood experiences. The experiences an individual has as child impacts on the development of social skills, behaviours, morals and values of an individualRead MoreOverview of Borrowed Theory Essay1672 Words   |  7 Pagessynonymous with a rubber band ball. A rubber band ball is made up of numerous rubber bands wrapped around each other to form a ball. A borrowed theory is information (rubber bands) that is assembled from different disciplines and incorporated into nursing practice (rubber band ball). The most applicable borrowed theory would be Richard Lazarus’ Stress, Coping, Adaptation Theory. â€Å"Lazarus’ theory deals with how a person copes with stressful situations† (McEwen Wills, 2011, p. 288). This theory is categorizedRead MoreA Comparison of Community Psychology and Public Health1179 Words   |  5 PagesA COMPARISON OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY AND PUBLIC HEALTH. In this assignment the key differences and similarities of community psychology and the public health approach will be examined and critically compared. Community Psychology is a branch of psychology which is concerned primarily with achieving positive mental health in the broader context of the community rather than the individual. Public health is primarily concerned and focused on changing behaviours within the context of the public in

Buying Favor Why Congress Depends on Funding From...

There is a problem with Congress. The previous sentence summarizes the collective sentiment of the general public concerning the legislative branch of the federal government. A 2010 Gallop poll revealed that over eighty-nine percent of Americans have no confidence in Congress (Lessig 2). It is theorized that Congress is so far out of favor because it has been unable to resolve the nation’s most important issues, such as Medicare, Medicaid, immigration reform, and the growing budget deficit, due to seemingly trivial reasons. Some theorize this lack of significant legislative action is due to growing partisanship between the system’s dominate political parties, the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. According to Mark Brewer,†¦show more content†¦Lessig observes that theorists of political corruption do not normally focus on good souls. They focus on the â€Å"venally corrupt,† who bribe officials in an effort to gain privilege, or the â€Å"s ystematically corrupt,† who make influential individuals dependent upon the government to ensure they protect the government (Lessig 7-8). These good souls are not necessarily evil as they do not seek to cause harm. They are simply taking advantage of the system to secure prosperity. Lessig also asserts that legislators within Washington, D.C. are not evil; they are simply good souls sullied by the systematic corruption within the institution. Lessig is not alone in his positive view of Washington’s bureaucrats. In his book, Divided We Govern, David R. Mayhew insists that elected officials view themselves as â€Å"problem-solvers,† hardly the mindset of nefarious villains concerned only with what they stand to gain from being in Washington, D.C. (130-131). Lessig later affirms that this dependence on campaign funding has led to both parties being unable to accomplish their partisan objectives. During his presidency, Ronald Regan established three central g oals forShow MoreRelatedEssay on Increasing Security at The Mexican American Border3613 Words   |  15 Pagesit drives down labor costs (but they forget to mention workers wages as well), it is racist (or at least many political figures will have you believe), and it is a huge untapped constituency. I believe that it would be in the United States best interest to increase our military presence and use of high tech surveillance on the border and continue to work bilaterally with Mexico, as well as create harsher domestic laws to help limit the flow of illegal drugs and immigrants into our nation. TheRead MoreAuditors Independence Case Study14460 Words   |  58 PagesAcademy of Management Review 2006, Vol. 31, No. 1, 10–29. 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Historic American Wars through the Ages Free Essays

In this research paper, the various wars that America has taken part in are discussed and dissected to identify the root causes for the wars, the actual incidents which transpired and the final consequences in the aftermath of the said wars. Evolution of the Militia System in the Colonial Times The militia is recognized as the local able-bodied force which the British created in order to protect its vested interests in the colonized regions when its own military was insufficient to contain the military responsibilities (Telzrow, 2006). The responsibility of the militia in the case of the United States was to basically supress the native population and safeguard the British interests in the geographical region. We will write a custom essay sample on Historic American Wars through the Ages or any similar topic only for you Order Now The militia was basically equipped and trained along the regular army lines and were to act as the front runners in any altercation. Evolution The movement of the English into the region previously dominated by the Indians was seen as an act against the locals as they were maltreated and they began to become increasingly hostile. Aside from the local threat, the British were paranoid due to the presence of the Spanish, French and Dutch who were located all around the United States. The requirement for the militia units were that the person should be able-bodied and lie within the age of 15-60 (Telzrow, 2006). The leadership was often bestowed to wealthy families and people who were politically strong. These armies comprised of locals of the surrounding areas and rarely went into battles in distant places as there primary objective was providing security to their own locality. The militia was also restricted due to labor demands since most were common villagers who had some military training. So when the harvesting season was upon them, the militia was understaffed. Eventually the volunteer militia was created which consisted of militia members who voluntarily made the militia and were responsible in procuring their own equipment and weapons. This militia had a more military and social background then the regular militia. Importance The population of the army in the United States was not sufficient enough to provide internal security as well as address the problems with the expanding Dutch, Spanish and French empires (Cooper, 1997). The local militia provided the British with a constant supply of soldiers and they would handle the internal conflicts and handle security issues. The militia provided villages and towns a means of defending themselves against neighboring areas and it was the militia which provided the Civil war with able-bodied men to defend their rights. British View of the Militia The British viewed the militia as a reserve unit for their disposal. Even though the militia was trained under the army, they were rarely taken for any expeditions far from their localities. Since most of the militia members were farmers and villagers they weren’t taken far from their responsibilities. It was this short-sight which eventually cost the British, as the militia was the fundamental force behind the Battle for Independence in which the British lost against the united Americans. The militia was led by a trained contingent of professionally trained soldiers and the concept of a dual army was born which existed in the War of Independence. The War of 1812 The War of 1812 was fought between the United States of America and Great Britain. The war lasted from 1812 to 1815. Causes The causes for the war could be traced to the United States frustration towards the British navy and its actions conducted in the sea. During this era, the British were searching for men who they could use as seamen and for this purpose they would stop and search for deserted sailors on ships headed towards the United States and departing from it. The British did not hesitate in hassling Americans in the process (Galafilm). The British were also pressing for the United States to quit trading with France, since France was at war with Britain. This was during the Napoleonic era. These strict regulations and haughty attitude eventually frustrated the United States to such an extent that they took notice of these acts in the United States Congress. The United States felt that their rights on the seas had been violated. The United States felt that if it tried some economic approaches then under the pressure the British would fold but their attempts at constraining the economic activities across the sea routes proved ineffective and they eventually declared war against Great Britain on June 18, 1812. Conduct of the War Responding to the call for war, the United States decided to win over the Canadian region occupied by the British. The United States launched a three pronged attack in 1812 which failed. During the year however the Americans were able to win a series of single-ship engagements and were able to harry British shipping. In response to these actions the British tightened the coastlines and created blockades. The outcome of this was that the American trade suffered, and their finances were weakened, and the entire coastline was exposed to attacks from the British. In 1813 the Americans attempted to take over Canada again. Yet similar to past expeditions, this attempt failed at once. 1814 however proved to be the decisive year, as the British had won over the French. They began concentrating their attention towards the United States front and began harrying troops along to the States in order to suppress the American revolt. They concentrated on attacking on 3 major fronts; New York, New Orleans and Chesapeake (Berton, 1988). The British were able to gain victory in all 3 places and the Americans were barely able to resist the forces. Consequence In 1815 the Battle of New Orleans took place in which the British’s superior forces were unable to overpower the lesser American force. Using strategic miscalculations on the part of the British, the Americans were able to defeat them in the historic battle. The end of the war was marked by the Treaty of the Ghent, in which none of the problems were resolved. Winners or Losers The War of 1812 did not provide any conclusive winners or losers as both sides suffered many losses economically and with respect to lives. The period from 1812-1815 marked an economical decline for America and it did not help the United States as such. The Mexican War of 1846 The Mexican War was fought between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848. Causes After the annexation of Texas, Mexico appeared claiming Texas as part of its own geographic boundaries (Son of the South, 2003). This came as a surprise to the Americans as Mexico was already a recognized state with its own geographic borders clearly identified by the United States of America, England, France and other governments. The Mexicans were also causing trouble since the Republican government had succeeded in their country and they were a constant thorn in the side of the United States. The state of Mexico would replenish its treasury and gather funding by plundering United States vessels in the Gulf of Mexico. Upon the United States complain, the governments formulated treaties yet they were never acted upon and the plundering continued to transpire unabated. The War In 1845, President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to occupy a position near the Rio Grande, as a precautionary measure since both sides were becoming increasingly hostile towards each other. During the expedition moving closer to Rio Grande, General Zachary began the construction of Fort Brown, which was later targeted by the Mexicans as a point to be recognized and neutralized. The first battle was at Palo Alto, after the Mexicans began gathering around the Fort Brown and it appeared as if it would fall. In this battle the United States won against the gathered Mexican forces. In the month of May 1846, both sides openly declared war and urged their states to take the neighbor as a recognized threat. What followed later were a number of expeditions across Texas into the state of Mexico, with the generals defeating the local forces and extending the United States controlled territory. Matamoras, Monterrey, Veracruz, Cerro Gordo, etc. were majorly all successful campaigns conducted by the U. S. generals. During this war California also gained independence as the locals declared the said independence after the Mexican forces were repelled from the state. The northward expedition by General Scott of the United States forces was undeterred and in September 13, the city of Mexico had fallen to the U. S. government and the Mexicans were ultimately defeated. A reason which could be attributed to the constant defeat by the Mexicans against the Americans could be that the Mexicans at the time were locked in internal conflicts as well, which resulted in their inability to unite against the foreign threat (Soto, 2006). Consequences of the Mexican War After the Mexicans were defeated in battle, in February 1848 the Mexican Congress agreed to establish a treaty of peace with the United States generals at Guadalupe Hidalgo. Both sides ratified to it on July 4 of the same year. The stipulation of the treaty was that Mexico would be evacuated of American troop’s presence in 3 months and payments worth $3,000,000 in hand and $12,000,000 by the United States to Mexico over a period of 4 installments would be paid for the development of New Mexico and California which had become U. S. territories. A major consequence of the war was the distinguishing of the boundary dividing Mexico and the United States. When the treaty was ratified in 1854, the treaty of 1848 was revised and the boundaries were fixed and the United States agreed to pay $7,000,000 to $10,000,000 as a consideration to Mexico. The conditions set under the peace treaty were all complied with and peaceful relations have existed between the two nations since then. The Spanish American War The Spanish American War was a brief yet conclusive battle which lasted from April 1898 to July 1898, during which time the Spanish Empire was destroyed and offering the United States with several new possessions in the Caribbean and the Pacific (Department Of The Navy — Naval Historical Center, 1998). Causes What basically marked the beginning of the war between the Spanish navy and the United States navy was the attack on the battleship Maine. This was an unprecedented attack on U. S. property and it incited the United States to go to war. Even though it has yet to be proven that the attack on the battleship was Spanish inspired (Buscheni, 2000), the U. S. newspapers used their influential position to paint a grim picture regarding the Spanish. Appeals placed in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines all made it appear as the regions were under Spanish oppressive rule and helped precipitating the war and providing tender to the flames. The newspapers in the United States were seeing a boom as they were the major source of information for the populace. Using their position, newspapers began writing pieces by which there sales would be maximized disregarding the truth and how events had really transpired (Buscheni, 2000). Incidents After the sinking of the battleship Maine in 15 February 1898, the Americans launched an attack in May of the same year in Manila. The battle of Manila Bay was between the Spanish fleet positioned there against the United States Navy. The battle was one sided as the Spanish fleet comprised of large wooden ships whereas the U. S. Navy consisted of smaller steel vessels. After the firing from the U. S. Navy, led by Admiral George Dewey, the Spanish fleet situated in Manila was completely destroyed. This was one of the most successful campaigns undertaken by the United States as the only casualty during this campaign resulted from sunstroke and not actual combat (Independence Hall Association). Another expedition was launched in Cuba under the command of General William Shafter, who led a force which was vastly outnumbered 7 to 1. The true glory of the Cuban expedition is accredited to a group of fighters referred to as the Rough Riders, who comprised of cowboys, adventurous college students and ex-convicts who had volunteered for the cause. The Rough Riders, Shafter’s forces and 2 African American regiments all collaborated in charging up San Juan Hill and bottling the Spanish in the Santiago Harbor. The Spanish lost this war when the Spanish fleet was destroyed by the American forces. Consequences The United States received the Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico after the Treaty of Paris was signed which basically awarded the victors. Cuba attained independence after this war and Spain was given $20 Million to recover its losses from these battles. Yet however, the key consequence of the Spanish American War was the proof of the strength of journalism in the United States. The effectiveness of the newspapers to influence the populace into thinking about right and wrong and coming up with conclusions based on what they wished to happen was evident in this war. Another consequence of this war could be the realization of the expanding American empire, as the desire to â€Å"free† Cuba from oppressive Spanish rule was replaced by the occupation of Puerto Rico and the Philippines by the United States. The U. S. sentiment supported the expansions and it is evident to this day of the urge of United States to occupy other countries to provide â€Å"peace† and â€Å"freedom†. Jomini and Clausewitz Fundamental Principles of War Swiss wrier Antoine- Henri Jomini and Prussian Carl von Clausewitz were military theorists who became popular during the era of the French Revolution and Napolean. Both have been highly influential in framing military thinking. The theories presented by both Jomini and Clausewitz are seen as either exact opposites of each other or as identical in most respects. The reason behind such a conflicting view is due to the similar background shared by the two theorists. Both had a common historic interest in the campaigns led by Frederick the Great, both shared long personal experience in the Napoleonic wars (even though both were on different sides), and both read each other’s books. After taking into account the mentioned reasons it comes as no surprise as both theorists saw war in the same light, just from different angles (Bassford, 1993). Fundamental Differences between the two theorists In its most basic form, both theorists were on opposing sides of each other during the French Napoleonic era. Jomini acted as an interpreter and general for the French forces, while Clausewitz had fought numerous times against the French being in the Prussian army. Both held a differing perspective regarding the concepts related to the history and role of the military. Clausewitz book, On War, clearly indicated that history was a dynamic process and it should not be looked upon with a static world view as values, standards and situations differ with respect to the context of the times. His theories bring to light a concept which states that war can vary its form depending on the circumstances in which it is being fought, hence the nature of the policy and the society within it is waged is crucial to take into account and should not be overlooked as a constant. On the other hand, Jomini’s views regarding war were simplistic in nature and were static. He recognized war as a battle of superior minds, in the form of military generals and heroes, and reflected that war was beyond normal people’s comprehension. He referred to war as a â€Å"drama† with differences in wars arising due to differing technologies, political motivations and people involved. His work was thus more appealing to military educators as its purpose was to teach practical lessons to officers of a superior grade. Even though the philosophies of both theorists differed, both discussed the same materials in their works which were practically applicable to scenarios which may arise during wars. Similarities and Sharing of Opinions Initially Jomini appeared to be a role model for Clausewitz, as in Clausewitz first book â€Å"Principles of War†, we can see the references and acknowledgements Clausewitz aimed towards Jomini (Handel). Both also shared a lot of similar concepts and terminologies which reflected on their acceptance of the others opinion. The fundamental Jomini theory related to warfare which lies in accordance with the theory proposed by Clausewitz was the concept of the centre of gravity. Both theorists shared the opinion that all armies have a central point where if they were attacked then the outcome would turn in favor of the attacker. Yet in due time Clausewitz began to think otherwise. His argument was that Jomini did not take into account the external variables which could not be calculated such as the morals of the soldiers, the level of motivation, and other psychological factors. These arguments were however unjust as Jomini identified morale of the soldiers and other such concepts in his work the â€Å"Summary of the Art of War†. Yet this was published after Clausewitz’ death and were after Jomini had read â€Å"On War†. Relevance to Today’s World In truth the theories discussed by Jomini are more popularly enforced in today’s world rather than the works of Clausewitz which is in one way a disadvantage as war has become overly simplistic in nature not taking into account values and other humanistic factors. Becoming purely mathematical and artistic in nature has cost us humanity’s values. In today’s volatile environment we find coexistence between the two approaches. We can find instances where the Clausewitz approach is applied where wars are fought along the grounds of being righteous and to further humanistic elements (such as the Afghan war and Iraq invasion), whereas other times we find the human element entirely lacking (the Turks and Kurd war). Both the theories are applicable as taking into account the Clausewitz belief that wars should be taken in context to the situation and not as a point in time, the theories adapted by leading strategists fall into a category which is a mixture of both the theorists views. References Bassford, C. (1993). Jomini And Clausewitz: Their Interaction. 23rd Meeting of the Consortium on Revolutionary Europe . Georgia State University . Berton, P. (1988). Flames across the Border . Buscheni, J. (2000). Remember the Maine. Retrieved March 22, 2009, from The Spanish American War: http://www. smplanet. com/imperialism/remember. html Cooper, J. (1997). The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia, 1865-1920. Nebraska Press. Department Of The Navy — Naval Historical Center. (1998, October 16). EVENTS — Spanish-American War. Retrieved March 22, 2009, from Naval Historical Center: http://www. history. navy. mil/photos/events/spanam/eve-pge. htm Galafilm. (n. d. ). The War of 1812: Introduction. Retrieved March 22, 2009, from Galafilm. com: http://www. galafilm. com/1812/e/intro/index. html Handel, M. I. Masters of War. Routledge. Independence Hall Association. (n. d. ). The Spanish American War and its Consequences. Retrieved March 22, 2009, from U. S. History: http://www. ushistory. org/us/44d. asp Son of the South. (2003). The Mexican War. Retrieved March 22, 2009, from SonoftheSouth. com: http://www. sonofthesouth. net/mexican-war/war. htm Soto, M. (2006, March). The Aftermath of War: A Legacy of the US-Mexican War. Retrieved March 22, 2009, from The U. S. -Mexican War: http://www. pbs. org/kera/usmexicanwar/aftermath/legacy. html Telzrow, M. E. (2006, May 1). Citizen Soldiers: the militia: the story of America’s citizen soldiers shows that the militia and the second amendment are not obsolete. The populace at large will always fulfill essential militia functions. The New American . 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Jewish Perceptions of Jesus Christ Essay Example For Students

Jewish Perceptions of Jesus Christ Essay Christianity and Judaism are major world religions which, though they worship the same God, have marked differences which have caused two thousand years of strife and animosity between the two religions. In his book We Jews and Jesus, Samuel Sandmel likens the link between Judaism and Christianity to a type of parent-child relationship, saying, Early Christianity was a Judaism; within a century after the death of Jesus it was a separate religion. It was critical of its parent, and hostile to it, and elicited from its parent reciprocal criticism and hostility. 1 Opposing views of Jesus Christ caused the initial rift between Judaism and Christianity and is the primary source of the tension between the two religions which has continued for the last two millennia. Therefore, in order to understand how Judaism and Christianity relate to one another, it is essential to understand the way Jesus is perceived in each religion. The way that Christians view Jesus is quite well known, but Judaisms view of him is much lesser known, so it is important to explore Judaisms perceptions of Jesus, beginning with New Testament times, and to examine the ways in which these feelings and opinions have changed over time. Although the New Testament is the main source of information regarding Jesus life, Jews often disregard it as a reliable source of information. It was not written until two to three generations after Jesus, hence it cannot be considered a primary source. Also, from a Jewish perspective, the aim of the Gospels is not to give an accurate account of Jesus life and teachings; the Gospels served as missionary documents containing accounts recorded by biased evangelists. They reflect the aims of the church rather than actual facts, and their writers were more concerned with the advancement of Christianity than the transmission of factual historical information. For these reasons, it is impossible to separate the historical Jesus from the divine Christ presented in the Gospels, and Judaism regards the Gospels as unreliable and irrational. It is not known exactly when Jesus was born, but according to the Christian calender, his birth year was circa 4 B. C. Christmas, the day of Christs birth, is celebrated by Christians on December 25, but the actual day and month of his birth are unknown. Rachel Zurer, a follower of Judaism, points out that December 25 was celebrated as the birthday of Mithras, a Roman god, until church leaders declared the day as Jesus birth date. Jewish scholars believe that contrary to Christian teaching, Jesus was born in Nazareth, not Bethlehem, and the idea of the Immaculate Conception is not accepted. According to the Talmud, Jesus was actually an illegitimate child. In a passage narrated in the Tract Kallah, 1b (18b), Rabbi Akibah says to Mary, Tell me, what kind of son is this of yours? to which Mary responds, The day I was married I was having menstruation, and because of this my husband left me. But an evil spirit came and slept with me and from this intercourse my son was born to me. 3 The Talmud (the Babylonian Talmud in particular) refers to Jesus as Son of Stada/Satda and Son of Pandera ; these titles are not used clearly, but it is evident that both are used in reference to Jesus, and scholars have inferred their probable meanings. Sanhedrin 67a states that The son of Stada was son of Pandera. Rab Chisa said: The husband was Stada, the lover Pandera. . . his mother was Miriam, the womens hairdresser; as they would say. Stath da to her husband; Stath da means she was unfaithful or she proved faithless, and is obviously used in reference to Marys lack of faithfulness to her husband. 4 According to this passage, Stada was Jesus legal father (Marys husband), and Pandera was his biological father, Marys alleged lover. Stada is also used as a nickname for Mary, again, in reference to her alleged infidelity. According to Jewish belief, God has no son; since Joseph was not Jesu s father, Jesus must have been illegitimate. There exists a statute which reads: A bastard shall not enter into the assembly of the Lord; even to the tenth generation shall none of his enter into the assembly of the Lord, and the Talmud is absolutely certain that Jesus was illegitimate. 5 Knowing this, one may wonder why Jesus was allowed into the assembly of the Lord. A possible answer is that Jesus actually passed as the son of Joseph until the claim of immaculate conception. 6 The Talmud again dishonors Mary by calling her a mgaddla nsajja, a womens hairdresser, an occupation which was not considered fitting for a virtuous married woman. The Gospel recorded by Matthew asserts (and followers of Judaism believe) that Mary gave birth to other children, but this is denied by the Catholic Church, which refers to Marys other children as Jesus cousins. John 8:57 says that Jesus wasnot yet fifty, when he was executed. However, his execution is generally believed to have occurred when he was between the ages of 26 and 36, and it is commonly accepted that he was 33. The Jewish view of Jesus crucifixion greatly conflicts with the Christian interpretation of the event. According to the book Zohar, III, (282), Jesus died like a beast and was buried in a dirt heap. . . where they throw he dead bodies of dogs and asses, and where the sons of Esau and of Ismael , also Jesus and Mahommad, uncircumcized and unclean like dead dogs, are buried; in short, Jesus was buried in Hell. 8 The search for historical facts concerning Jesus execution has historically been a Jewish concern because of the hostility toward Jews because of this event. From a Jewish perspective, one might wonder why Christians express such animosity toward those who they believe crucified Christ. If the crucifixion brought atonement to mankind, why would Christians hate those who were involved? If the crucifixion was Gods will, the role of those who carried out the crucifixion was determined by God and was no fault of theirs. 10 Judaism rejects most of Jesus teachings and characterizes him as a fool, idolater, and seducer of the people who, as described by Reverend I. B. Pranaitis, could teach nothing but falsehood and heresy whish was irrational and impossible to observe. 11 Jesus is called a fool by the Elders in Schabbath, 104b: He was a fool, and no one pays attention to fools. This was at least partially because of teachings in which he called himself the son of God or claimed that he and God are one. Jesus is also considered an idolater. In Sanhedrin, 103a, it is mentioned that Jesus burns his food publicly, which is equivalent to true doctrine through heresy, the true worship of God through idolatry. 2 Jesus is also accused of up idols in the streets and public places. 13 During early Christianity, it was a general belief of Jews that Christians offered sacrifices to idols, and it was concluded that this practice must have commenced with Jesus. Jews consider idolatry to be the highest form of falling away from God15, and it is believed that one who practices idolatry denies the entire Torah. Jesus is also charged with corrupting and seducin g the people of Israel and is referred to as Balaam, a title which means devourer or destroyer of the people. This title expresses the belief that Jesus was viewed as the spiritual destroyer of Israel because he caused a rift in the synagogue and according to the Jewish conception is the greatest destroyer of the people, who has ever risen up in the midst of Israel. 17 Often, Jews and Jewish scholars parallel many of Jesus teachings and assertions to sayings in Jewish literature which preceded his existence and use this to deny Jesus originality. It is believed that although it is not known exactly what Jesus actual words were, they could only have come from Judaism. After all, Jesus was a Jew, and he never turned away from Judaism. Stolper boldly asserts that none of Jesus teachings added even one iota to the strength of the Torah,18 and Rachel Zurer maintains that, Christians who grew up believing that the gospels present original truths uttered by Jesus, need to turn to the Bible (their Old Testament) and to the rabbinic wisdom circulating in his time. Here will be found the sources for sayings attributed to Jesus. (Except of course for the scurrilous words and vilifications put into his mouth by the missionary evangelists). 19 Should this business update to Windows 2000 from W EssayThe cross typically used for crucifixion was often called Tau by Hebrews and Phoenicians. However, the cross adopted as a symbol of Christianity is called several names: Tsurath Haatalui (the image of him who was hanged), Elil (vanity, idol), Tselem (in Jewish books, Crusaders are called Tsalmerin), Scheti Veerbh (warp and woof, which is taken from the textile art), Kokhabh (star; on account of the four rays emanating from it), and Pesila (a sculpture, a carven idol). 41 Whenever the cross is mentioned, it is in the sense of an idol or something which is unacceptable in Judaism. It is evident that early Judaism disregarded Jesus and his followers, but to what extent have traditional Jewish attitudes toward Jesus perpetuated? How is the attitude of modern Judaism toward Christ different from the traditional attitude? This may be explored using the Jewish Encyclopedia a record of Judaism from its earliest times as a source. The articles in the Encyclopedia which discuss Jesus Christ were written by scholars of reformed or progressive Judaism (the two terms can be used interchangeably), which is the product of modern thought, investigation, and adaptation to existing conditions. 2 Progressive Judaism began to develop during the early nineteenth century when interaction between Jews and gentiles increased and the exchange of ideas occurred much more than it had in the past. As a result of this movement, many Jewish beliefs have been modified to coincide more with modern times and to promote assimilation with modern conditions without sacrificing the integrity of Judaism. 43 As the beliefs of Judaism have evolved, so has the attitude toward Jesus. Naturally, followers of progressive Judaism do not see Christ as Christians do, but their view of him is more genial than it previously has been. Clyde Votaw, a Christian, welcomes the new trends in Judaism and believes that the worst is past in the alienation of Jews from Christianity. 44 Progressive Judaism holds that Jesus was born around the year 2 B. C. in Nazareth; his public ministry lasted for approximately ten months, and he was executed in Jerusalem in 29 A. D. 45 Jesus was a figure who was extremely emotional about religion, and he often had visions and celestial experiences. He performed many miracles and was particularly devoted to casting out demons, which is now understood to mean that he cured mental and nervous conditions. He shared many beliefs and practices of the Essene sect, of which he was a part, but he also distinguished himself from them in many ways. 46 Jesus could be amiable and understanding toward friends but allusive and unfair toward others. Jesus was a devout and steadfast Jew, never turning away from Judaism. He believed that as a Jew, it was his duty to literally follow the Law. If this is true, one may ask, if Jesus were considered a devout Jew, why has he continually been rejected by Jews? ) It is believed that in his teachings, Jesus was only reiterating previous Jewish beliefs. Essentially, Jesus teachings were a continuation of the teachings of John the Baptist, which had two central points: repentance and the coming Kingdom of God. Jesus doctrine of the fatherhood of God and the Prayer that he gave his disciples were also based largely upon previously existing Jewish ideas. Therefore, all originality is denied to him. In response to this, Clyde Votaw asks, . . . how comes it that the Jews did not first show, and through nineteen centuries have never shown, any real appreciation of the Lords Prayer, or of Jesus other teachings, which nevertheless they claim were reiterations of their own best thoughts? 47 It is also a belief of progressive Judaism that Jesus would not have attained the level of success that he achieved if it were not for his works; his teachings alone would not have been enough. He performed miracles and great works for the common people, and in return they accepted and supported him. It was never his intention to establish a new religion; his mission was to Judaism. Progressive Jews believe that the Christian movement, which developed after his crucifixion, was not foreseen by Jesus and would not have been alluring to him. Contrary to the belief of traditional Judaism, progressive Judaism asserts that Jesus never actually claimed to be divine but instead that he regarded himself as an ordinary human. The passages in the Gospels about Jesus divinity and status and the literal son of God reflected ideas of his disciples which developed after his demise. 48 Progressive Judaism is uncertain about whether Jesus considered himself the Messiah. In modern Judaism, the idea of the Messiah is discarded; it is not longer expected that a Messiah will come to redeem mankind. 49 Jesus did not know in advance that he would be crucified; contrary to traditional belief, progressive Judaism contends that Jesus death came as a surprise to him. He did not expect to be captured and executed. Therefore, his death was not the self-sacrificing act that it is portrayed to be in the Gospels. It was represented this way because Christians needed to explain how God would allow the Messiah to be executed as Jesus was. The party responsible for Jesus execution was a small group of Jewish priests. Roman authorities depended on the Temple priests to inform them of dissenters and opposition, and these priests often functioned as puppets of the Roman empire. Because these priests were acting on behalf of personal benefit, they saw Jesus as a political threat to Rome which must be extinguished. Jesus had no formal trial or hearing; he was secretly arrested and sentence, and Pilate was persuaded to execute him. Jewish common people were actually supporters of Christ and were in no way responsible for his execution. 50 The results of Jesus life were quite minimal. He had little or no influence upon Jewish thought and made no permanent impressions on Judaism. Christianity arose because of Jesus fervent disciples who abandoned Judaism to begin a religious movement among gentiles. Paul founded the movement in the name of Jesus Christ. 51 As was previously mentioned, Christ taught that it is preferable to fulfill the will of God out of free choice rather than merely out of obedience to a legal system. Thus, he undermined the importance of literal interpretation of and adherence to Jewish Law. Ironically, Progressive Jews have adopted Jesus policy regarding adherence to their ancestral Law. They do not consider the Law to be binding upon themselves further than they approve for their own lives; they reserve the right to decide which parts of the Law to observe and which to disregard. 52 It is quite amazing that two seemingly similar religions could have differences so significant that two thousand years of hostility and misinterpretations could arise from them. Many of the differences actually appear quite minor, but they are, in fact, so significant that followers of these two religions could not begin to comprehend one anothers doctrines. It hopeful that with continuing study of the historical events surrounding Jesus life, efforts of Judaism and Christianity to clarify and communicate their beliefs, and open-mindedness on the part of both religions, some of these tensions can be (and have been) alleviated. Samuel Sandmel effectively explained this idea when he wrote, The issue here is not whether he Jewish way is better, or the Christian way is better, but only that these two ways are so different as to be to most Jews and Christians incomprehensible to each other. 53 If these two religions learn to accept their differences and continue to view one another with open-mindedness and respect, as is the trend in reformed/progressive Judaism, it is probable that the worst of the strife between these two religions and their followers is in the past.